Organizational Learning and Individual Learning Bibliography

Anonymous (1995): "Never too old (or too big) to learn", International Journal of Career Management, Vol 7, No. 4: 9-10.

An in-depth investigation was conducted into BT to highlight a learning organization. Organizational learning (OL) is a set of processes to help people create new knowledge, share understanding, and continuously improve themselves and the company. More forward-thinking companies see OL as a core competence necessary to survive in the marketplace. The primary applications of OL focus on corporate-wide functions such as strategic planning, quality improvement, organization and management development, and structural design. Two key factors in BT's success were the communication of the work throughout the organization and the perseverance of the team.[Abstract from bpo 21/9/96]
 

Anonymous (1995): "The learning organization", Chief Executive No. 101: 57-64.

Summary of roundtable discussion among senior U.S business executives of their experiences and observations on transforming OL from a concept to a reality. One key finding: "What separates companies that sustain learning from those that do not is ; purposeful intent - a plan to create, store, and act upon knowledge at the procedural or institutional level.

Anonymous (1995): "Overcoming organizational learning disabilities" Chief Executive July- Aug. CEO Brief: 18

Anonymous (1996): "Competitive Advantage Through Diversity: Organizational Learning from Difference", Organization-Studies. Vol 17, No. 2,354-355

Next to efficiency and productivity, competitive organizations must follow a new set of priorities: the need to innovate and to learn. In this context, organizational diversity is a key resource facilitating creativity and learning. The authors argue that innovation can only bring competitive advantage if the issue is addressed at the individual, team, and organizational levels. Part 1 focuses on people. It explores the variety of mental frameworks of those in different organizational roles and the contributions they bring to organizations. Part 2 is concerned with joint practices within a teamworking model, where the principles of effective teamworking are examined as well as the interaction of context, tasks, team roles and processes. Only if diverse individuals work together in teams in a context where they can learn from the outcomes of their actions will successful innovation occur. Part 3 finally describes the knowledge process model, including the role of information technology. From this view, the organization is seen as repeated circles of knowledge processes on every level of activity. (Extracted from BPO on CDROM 21/9/96)

Abbott, J. and Dahmus, S. (1992): "Assessing the Appropriateness of Self-Managed Learning", Journal of Management Development, Vol. 11, no. 1: 50-60.

Adler, P. S. (1990): "Shared learning, Management Science, Vol 36, No. 8: 938-57.

Adler, P. S. and Cole, R. E. (1993): "Designed for Learning: A tale of two auto plants" Sloan Management Review, Spring: 85-94.

Addleson, M. (1996): "Resolving the spirit and substance of organizational learning", Special issue of Journal of Organizational Change Management -

Organizational Learning: Past, Present, and Future, Journal of Organizational Change Management , Volume 9 Number 1.

There are two strands in the organizational learning (OL) literature marked by incompatible world views. The dominant substance is modernist while the spirit is interpretive. The focus on systems, in form of learning loops and systems archetypes, identifies an acceptance of the tenets of modernism. The spirit offers an innovative view of management and contradicts the modernist substance. Drawing on contemporary hermeneutics, the spirit leads to a different conception of the organization, the role of management, and OL. Organizations comprise communities with different interests and understandings. Both organizational problems and solutions reflect people's understanding. Cooperation involves establishing mutual interests and is achieved through discourse that builds communities of understanding. (Abstract from special issue)

Agor,.W. H. (1996): "Brain skill management", Review of Public Personnel Administration, Vol. 16, No. 3 : 14-22.

Akin, G. (1987): "Varieties of managerial learning", Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 16, No. 2: 36-48.

Alavi, M. (1994): "Computer-mediated collaborative learning: An empirical evaluation", MIS Quarterly, Vol. 18, No. 2: 159-74.

Albright, R. C. and Post, P. E. (1993): "The challenges of electronic learning", Training and Development, Vol. 47, No. 8: 27-9.

Alexandra, K. (1996): "Six paths to knowing", Executive Excellence, Vol. 13, No. 8: 8.

Ambrosini, V. (1996): "Tacit knowledge", International Federation of Scholarly Associations in Management 3rd World Conference: Management of Intangibles, Paris., 8-11 July: 59.

Anderson, R. and Davidson, D. (1996): "A systems approach to competency-based learning systems," Employment Relations Today, Vol. 23, No. 2 (Summer): 21- 31.

Angehrn, A. A. and Manzoni, J. F. (1996): 'A high-tech spin on organizational learning" Chief Executive. Apr , No. 112, 66-67

Araujo, L. (1996): 'Knowing and learning as Collective Work", paper presented for the Symposium on Organisational Learning and the Learning Organisation : Theoretical and Research Developments, The Management School. Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK, 1 - 3 September.

Argyris, C. (1975): "Double-Loop Learning in Organizations", Harvard Business Review, Vol. 55, No. 5: 115-125.

Argyris, C. (1976): "Leadership, Learning, and Changing the Status Quo", Organizational Dynamics, Winter: 29-43.

Argyris, C. (1982a): "The Executive Mind and Double-Loop Learning", Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 11, No. 2: 5-22.

Argyris, C. (1982b): Reasoning, Learning, and Action, (Individual and Organizational) San Francisco, Jossey- Bass.

Argyris, C. (1983):"Productive and Counterproductive Reasoning Processes", in Suresh Srivastava and Associates, (Eds.): The Executive Mind , San Francisco, Jossey-Bass: 25-57.

To close, the skills and competencies that executives learn for dealing with an X-Y type of problem can be used for dealing with any double-loop problem. The key is to learn the new skills and to acquire a new set of governing rules. If executives learn the new skills - such as advocating their position and encouraging enquiry - but use them to maintain unilateral control and to maximize winning, they will be using the new skills in the service of Model 1 values. They remain within a Model 1 mode: they hide their views about the gimmickaries of the new behaviour and yet act as if they were not hiding anything. As a result, others may interpret their newly acquired skills as gimmicks as new ways to manipulate people.

Luckily, people judge the credibility of human skills by evaluating what values they serve. This means that those who learn the new skills as gimmicks and tricks will be discovered. It also means that those who wish to gain credibility not only must learn the new skills but must internalize a new set of values (1983: 57).

Argyris, C. (1985): Strategy, Change and Defensive Routines, Boston, Mass., Pitman.

Argyris. C. (1986): "Skilled incompetence", Harvard Business Review, Sept.-Oct: 74- 9.

Argyris, C. (1990): "Strategy Implementation: An Experience in Learning", Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 16: 5-15.

Argyris, A. (1990): Overcoming organizational defences, Boston, Allyn & Bacon.

Argyris, C. (1991): "Teaching Smart People How to Learn", Harvard Business Review, May-June: 100.

Argyris, C. (1993): "Education for leading-learning", Organization Dynamics, Winter: 5-17.

Argyris, C. (1995): "Action science and organizational learning", Journal of Managerial Psychology Vol. 10, No. 6: 20-26

Argyris, C. and Schon, D. (1978): Organisational Learning: A Theory-in-Action Perspective, Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley.

Argyris, C. and Schon, D. (1980): "What is an Organization that it may learn?" in Lockett, M. and Spear R. (eds), Organizations as Systems Milton Keynes, UK, The Open University Press.

Argyris, C. and Schon, D. (1990): Overcoming Organizational Defences: Facilitating Organizational Learning, Boston Mass., Allyn & Bacon.

Argyris, C. and Schon, D. (1996): Organizational Learning Edition 2, Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley.

Arrow, K. (1962): 'The implications of learning by doing'. Review of Economic Studies, Vol. 29: 166-170.

Ashton, D. (1988): "Are Business schools good learning organizations?", Personnel, Vol. 14, No. 4: 9-14.

Aubrey, R. and Cohen, P. M. (1995): Working Wisdom: Timeless Skills and Vanguard Strategies for Learning Organizations, San Francisco, CA, Jossey -Bass.

Ayas, K. (1996): "Learning Capacity for the Knowledge Age", International Federation of Scholarly Associations in Management 3rd World Conference, Paris., 8-11 July: 67-8.

Barber, J. C. (1994): "From the working class to the learning class", National Productivity Review , Vol .13, No. 4: 461-66.

Barclay, J. (1996): "Learning from experience with learning logs", Journal of Management Development, Vol. 15, No. 6: 28-43.


 

Barkema, H. G., Bell, J. H. J and Pennings, J. M. (1996) :" Foreign entry, cultural barriers, and learning" Strategic Management Journal. Vol. 17, No. 2: 151-166

A study examines the longevity of foreign entries. Hypotheses are developed on the mode (start-ups vas. acquisitions) and ownership structure (wholly owned vs. joint ventures) in relation to cultural distance. The hypotheses are tested within a framework of organizational learning, using data on 225 entries that 13 Dutch firms carried out from 1966 onwards. Results show that the presence of cultural barriers punctuates an organization's learning. Cultural distance is a prominent factor in foreign entry whenever this involves another firm, requiring the firm to engage in "double layered acculturation." Also identified are locational "paths of learning." The longevity of acquisitions is positively influenced by prior entries of the firm in the same country. Similarly, the longevity of foreign entries, in which the firm has a majority stake, improves whenever the expanding firm engaged in prior entries in the same country and in other countries in the same cultural block. (Extracted from BPO 21/9/96]

Barrett, F. (1995): "Creating Appreciative Learning Cultures", Organizational Dynamics Autumn: 36-49.

Bass, B. M. (1990): "From transactional to transformational leadership: Learning to share the vision", Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 18, No. 3:19-31.

Bateson, G. (1972): Steps Toward an Ecology of the Mind, New York, Ballentine Press.

Baughan. C. C., Osborn. R. N. and Denekamp, J. G. (1996): " Controlling the Transfer of Tacit Knowledge in Interorganizational Alliances," International Federation of Scholarly Associations in Management 3rd World Conference, Paris., 8-11 July: 73-4. (JO has copy of full paper and two-page summary)

Inform Michael Morrison, ASTOL g

Successful alliance management involves a process of structuring, managing and monitoring the collaborative interface to balance the need for information sharing with protection of intellectual capital. This work describes a framework for assessing and implementing this process (Authors' abstract to long paper)

Bawden, R. (1994): "Learning to Become a More Effective Organisation: A Critical Systems Thinking Approach, Sydney, NSW, Hynwest (Consulting) Pty. Ltd.

Beam, H. H. (1996): "Transformational Learning: Renewing Your Company Through Knowledge and Skills", Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 10, No. 3: 73- 75. (NB: Book review: Tobin, D. R 1996)

Beck, M. (1989): "Learning organizations and how to create them", Industrial and Commercial Training:, Vol. 21, No. 3: 21-8.

Beddowes, P. and Wills, S. (1993): "Ashbridge: Shaping an integrative approach to management education", Executive Development, Vol. 6, No. 4: 15-20.

Beer, M., Eisenstat, R. A. (1996): " Developing an organization capable of implementing strategy and learning", Human-Relations., Vol. 49, No.5: 597- 619

Beer, S. (1972): The brain of the firm, London, Allen Lane.

Bennett, J. K. and O'Brien, M. J. (1994): "The 12 building blocks of a learning organization, Training, Vol. 6) 41-9.

Bennis, W. and Nanus, B. (1985):" Organizational learning: The Management Of the Collective Self", New Management Vol. 3, No. 1: 7-13.

Benoit, C. A and Mackenzie, K. D. (1995): "The Science of an organization: Part II- Realizing a New Model of organizational learning", Human Systems Management, Vol. 14, No. 2: 119-32.

Benson, T. (1993): "The Learning Organization: Heading Towards Places Unimaginable", Industry Week, January: 35-8.

Bettis, R. A. and Prahalad, C. K. (1995): "The dominant logic: retrospective and extension", Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 16: 5-14.

Bilston, F. and Sohal, A. S. (1995): "Learning about quality: A small business perspective", The Learning Organization, Vol. 2, No. 3: 4-8.

• · Bouwen, R. and Fry, R. (1991): " Organizational Innovation and Learning - Four Patterns of Dialogue between the Dominant Logic and the New Logic", International Studies of Management and Organization , Vol. 12, No. 4: 37-51

• · Brown, J. S. and Dugind, P. (1991): "Organizational Learning and Communities of Practice: Toward a Unified View of Working, Learning and Innovation",

Organisational Science, Vol. 2, No. 1: 40-57.

Boud, D., Keogh, R. and Walker, D. (Eds.): Reflection: Turning Experience into Learning, New York, Nichols Publishing Company.

Brown, J. S. and Duguid, P. (1991): "Organizational learning and communities-of- practice: Toward a unified view of working, learning and innovation", Organization Science, Vol. 2, No. 1: 40-57.

Bumstead, D. C. (1994): "Learning organization and the meaning of work", Sloan Management Review, Vol. 19: 1-22.

Bunning, C. (1991): "Turning Experience into Learning: The Strategic Challenge for Individuals and Organizations", Training and Development in Australia, Vol. 18, No. 4: 5-10.

Burgleman, R. A. (1988): "Strategy making as a Social Learning Process: The case of Internal Corporate Venturing", INTERFACES, Vol. 18. No. 3: 74-85.

Burgoyne, J. G. (1976): "Learning processes in the acquisition of managerial skills

and qualities", Management Education and Development, Vol. 7: 205-07.

Burgoyne, J. G. (ND): Organizational learning and the learning company,: Perspectives in the literature.

Burgoyne, J. G. (1995): "Learning from experience: From individual discovery to meta-dialogue via the evolution of transitional myths", Personnel Review Vol. 24, No. 6: 61-72

Learning from experience assumes particular importance at times of fundamental transition because inherited learning becomes irrelevant or misleading. The current fundamental transition is from work for the production of knowledge to work for the production of identify/meaning. The accompanying transition in terms of learning from experience is from individual discovery of personal and environmental realities to collective meaning making. The contemporary concern with dialogue as a core process of collective meaning making in organizational learning is discussed, and a process of meta-dialogue is proposed as an approach to facilitating learning from experience in a way appropriate to the times. Meta-dialogue involves sharing and reaching an understanding of the ways in which beliefs under discussion in dialogue can be believed to be true or useful. [Abstract from BPO 21/9/96]

Burgoyne, J, Pedler, M. and Boydell, T. (eds), (199?): Towards the Learning Company: Concepts and Practices, Sydney ?, McGraw -Hill?

Butler, J. E. (1988): "Theories of Technological Innovation as Useful Tools for Corporate Strategy, Strategic Management Journal Vol .9, No. 1: 15-29.

The type of innovation, stage of development, learning at all levels, interdependence between technologies and users' expectations all appear to play a role in the emergence of technologies and the rate of innovation.

Butler, J. (1993): "Beyond Project-based Learning for Senior Managers and Their Teams", Journal of Management Development, Vol. 12, No. 2: 32-39.

Byrnes, J. S, Byrnes, J. and Copacino, W. C. (1990-91): "Develop a powerful learning team", Presidential Issue: 22-5.

Calas, M. B and Smircich, L. (1996): "Gendering Organizational Learning: Representation, Subjectivity, and the "Women's" Point of View" paper presented Academy of Management Conference , Cincinnati, Ohio, 9-14 August (Conference Proceedings: Wednesday: 121)

Calvert, G,. Mobley, S. and Marshall, L. (1994): "Grasping the learning organization", Training and Development, 6: 39-43.

Candy, P. C. (1992): "Learning to learn: The neglected dimension of managerial competence" in Smith, B. (ed.): Management Development in Australia , New South Wales, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich: 181-9.

Cangelosi, V. and Dill, W. (1965): "Organizational Learning: Observations Toward a Theory", Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 10: 175-203.

One of the earliest articles devoted to organizational learning .Presents a useful model and offers keen insights into the methodological and conceptual challenges of researching organizational learning.

Carley, K. (1992): "Organizational learning and personnel turnover", Organization Science, Vol. 3, No. 1: 20-46.

Carlson, K. D., Bretz, Jr., R. D. and Barrick, M .R. (1996): "Assessing Multiple Cognitive Learning Outcomes: Are They Independent Constructs?" paper presented Academy of Management Conference, Cincinnati, Ohio, 9-14 August ( Monday: Conference Proceedings: 42)

Carlsson, B., Keane, P. and Martin, J. B. (1976): "R&D Organizations as Learning Systems", Sloan Management Review, Spring: 1-15.

Carnevale, A. P. (1989): 'The learning enterprise" , Training and Development, Vol. 43, No. 2: 26-37.

Carnevale, A. P. (1992): "Learning: The critical technology", Training and Development, Vol. 46, No. 2: S1-S16.

Carstedt, G. (1993): "A culture of virtuous learning", Executive Excellence, Vol. 10, No. 2: 6-7.

Casey, A. (1996): "Enhancing Individual and Organizational Learning: A Sociological Model" paper Presented Academy of Management Conference, Cincinnatti, Ohio, 9-14 August ( Monday: Conference Proceedings: 42)

Cavaleri, S. A. and Fearnon, D. S. (19??): "Systems integration through concurrent learning", Industrial Management, Vol. 36., No. 1: 27-9.

Ciborra, C. (1991): 'Alliances as learning experiences: cooperation, competition and change in high-tech industries' in L. Mytelka (ed.): Strategic partnerships and the world economy. London: Pinter: 51-77 (Informed ASTOL G. 18/12/96)

Checkland, P. (1985): "From optimizing to learning: A development of systems thinking for the 1990s", Journal of the Operational Research Society, Vol.36: 757-67.

Cherry, N. (1995): Developing Reflective Practice, Melbourne, Vic., Unpublished PhD thesis, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology.

Clark, E. T. (1988): "The search for a new paradigm: The implications of new aspirations about thinking and learning, "Holistic Education Review, Spring: 18- 31.

Coates, N. (1994): "Organizations as Learning Systems: The Case of the Japanese Automobile Automobile Manufacturing Industry" The International Executive, Vol. 36, No. 2: 171-87.

Cohen, M D. (1991): "Individual Learning and Organizational Routine: Emerging Connections", Organization Science, Vol 2, No. 1 Feb: 135-9.

Cohen, W. M. and Levinthal, D. A. (1989): "Innovation and learning: two faces of R & D", Economic Journal, Vol. 99: 569-96.

Cohen, W. M. and Levinthal, D. A. (1990): "Absorptive capacity: A new perspective on learning and innovation", Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 35: 128-52.

Conant, J. K. (1996): "The manager's view of management education and training"

Review of Public Personnel Administration (Summer) Vol. 16, No. 3: 23-37

Confessore, S. J .and Kops, W. J. (1996): "Self-directed Learning and the Learning Organization: Examining the Connection of the Individual and the Learning Environment", paper presented for the Symposium on Organisational Learning and the Learning Organisation : Theoretical and Research Developments, The Management School. Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK, 1 - 3 September.

Conner, M. L.. et al. (1995): Learning: The Critical Technology, St Louis, Missouri, Wave Technologies International Inc.

Coopey, J. (1995): "The learning organization, power, politics, and ideology", Management Learning Vol. 26, No. 2: 193-213.

Corsini, R. (1987) Concise encyclopedia of psychology. New York: Wiley.

A psychologist who sees individual learning as involving 5 kinds of learning

capacities: (1) verbal skills; (2) intellectual skills; (3) cognitive strategies; (4)

attitudes; and (5) motor skills (as noted by Dodgson, 1993)

Cote, L., Langley, A. and Pasquero, J. (1996): "Acquisition Strategy and Dominant Logic in an Engineering Firm", paper presented Academy of Management Conference , Cincinnati, Ohio, 9-14 August (Conference Proceedings: Tuesday: 96)

Crosby, P. (1994): "Leaders and learning", Journal for Quality and Participation, Vol. 17, No. 2: 30-3.

Crossan, M. and Guatto, T. (1996): "Organizational learning research profile", Special issue of Journal of Organizational Change Management -

Organizational Learning: Past, Present, and Future, Journal of Organizational Change Management , Volume 9 Number 1.

This paper presents the results of a key word search of the Social Science

Citation Index (SSCI), ABI Inform, and PyschLit data bases using the terms

"organizational learning" and "learning organization" to uncover patterns

relating to the:

1. Amount of publishing activity by year;

2 Influential authors;

3 Journals publishing organizational learning research; and

4. Type of research published.

Crossman, M. Lane, H. and Hildebrand, T. (1993): "Organizational Learning: Theory to Practice", in Johnson, G and Hendry, J. (Eds.) Strategic Thinking : Leadership and the Management of Change , New York, Wiley: 229-65.

Crossan, M. M and Inkpen, A. C. (1993)" "Believing is Seeing: Joint Ventures and Organizational Learning" , National Centre for Management Research and Development Working Paper Series No. NC 93-009-G.

Crossan, M. M and Inkpen, A. C. (1994): "Commentary: Promise and Reality of Learning through Alliances", The International Executive, Vol. 36, No.3: c. 260-73.

Coulsin-Thomas, C. J. (1996): "BPR and the Learning Organization", The Learning Organization, Vol. 3, no. 1: 16-21.

Cunningham, I. (1994): The Wisdom of Strategic Learning: The Self Managed Solution, London, McGraw Hill.

Czegledy, A. P. (1996): "New directions for organizational learning in Eastern Europe" Organization-Studies. Vol. 17, No. 2,: 327-341

This paper Öseeks to critically examine some of the fundamental issues of organizational learning in the regional context. By drawing upon the author's own research and epistemological interests in this area, it also advocates specific directions for future research and business practice. Four inter-related themes are addressed: agency, communication, typification and contextuality. These themes emphasize the importance of seeking to separate the often generalized and ethnocentric discourse on organizational learning from the reality of its empirical and interpretive complexity. (Copied from BPPO CDROM 21/9.' 96)

Daft, R. L. (1984): "Toward a model of organizations as interpretation systems", Academy of Management Review, Vol. 9, No. 2: 284-95.

Daniels, S. (1994): "The learning organization", Work Study, Vol. 43, No. 8: 5-6.

Davies, J. and Easterby-Smith, M. (1984): "Learning and development from managerial work experiences", Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 21: 2.

Davis, S. and Botkin, J. (1994): "The Coming of Knowledge-Based Business", Harvard Business Review, No. 9-10: 165-70.

Day, G. S. (1994): "Continuous learning about markets", California Management Review, Vol. 36, No. 4: 9-31.

Dechant, K. (1990): "Knowing How to Learn: The "Neglected" Management Ability", Journal of Management Development, Vol.9, No. 4: 40-49.

(Incorporated into Mangl.lng.Ovw)

de Boer, M., van den Bosch, F. and Volberda, H. (1996): "Managing Innovation in An Emerging Industrial Complex: Organizational Knowledge Integration in Multimedia Firms," paper presented Academy of Management Conference , Cincinnati, Ohio, 9-14 August (Conference Proceedings: Tuesday: 92)

de Geus, A. P. (1988): "Strategy as Learning", Harvard Business Review, Mar-Apr.: 70-4.

Denton, D. K. (1991): "The learning organization involves the entire work force", Quality Progress, , No. 12: 69-72.

DiBella, A. J. (1995): "Developing Learning Organizations: A Matter of Perspective",

in Moore, D. P (ed), Best Papers Proceedings, Academy of Management Conference, Vancouver, BC, 6-9 August: 287-90.

As publications about the learning organization increase, the field has begun to exhibit three different orientations (normative, developmental, capability) in how learning organizations can be built. This paper delineates each of these orientations and discusses their implications for research and practice (1995: 287)

DiBella concludes : 'the learning organization is, as of yet, a chameleon-like target. Scholars and practitioners should continually assess the meaning and value of the concept through shifts in both organizational and theoretical environments Ö in doing so, we should be cognizant of our theoretical orientations about the learning organization and our underlying assumptions about organizations in general (1995: 289)

DiBella, A. J, Nevis, E. C. and Gould, J. M. (1996): "Understanding organizational learning capability", Journal of Management-Studies., Vol. 33, No. 3: 361-379

A study presents data on how learning takes place in 4 organizations, what gets learned, and the factors and processes that facilitate or impede learning. Seven orientations for describing organizational learning capability and understanding learning styles are identified: 1. knowledge source, 2. product-process focus, 3. documentation mode, 4. dissemination mode, 5. learning focus, 6. value-chain focus, and 7. skill development focus. Each of these orientations is conceived as a bi-polar continuum that reflects learning processes. (Cross refer Neivs, Dibella and Gould)

Dinur, A. (1996): "The Transfer of Knowledge in the Multinational Corporation", paper presented Academy of Management Conference , Cincinnati, Ohio, 9-14 August (Conference Proceedings: Tuesday: 92)

Dodgson, M. (1993): "Organizational learning : A review of some literatures", Organization Studies, Vol. 14, No.. 3: 375-94.

Donaldson, R. (1993): Further steps to an ecology of the mind: Essays of George Bateson, New York, Harper and Row.

Donegon, J. (1990): "The learning organization: Lessons from British Petroleum", European Management Journal, Vol. 8, No. 3: 302-12.

Dore, R.. and M. Sako (1989): How the Japanese learn to work. London: Routledge.

Doz, Y. L . (1996): "Th evolution of cooperation in strategic alliances: Initial conditions or learning processes?", Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 17 Special Issue: 55-83.

Drew, S. A. W. and Davidson, A. (1993): "Simulation-based Leadership Development and Team Learning". Journal of Management Development, Vol. 12, No. 8: 39- 52 (JO has copy of paper and demonstration disk )

Drew, S. A. W. and Smith. P. A. C. (1995): "The new logistics management: Transformation through organizational learning", Logistics Information Management Vol. 8, No. 1: 24-33.

Duchon, D. and Ashmos, D. P (1996): "Developed Mind vs. Developed Group: Differential Effects on Organizational Performance", International Federation of Scholarly Associations in Management 3rd World Conference, Paris., 8-11 July: 131-2.

Organizations with well-developed mechanisms for collectively giving meaning to the present as it unfolds into the future are organizations in which the interrelations and connections among its members are heedful, i.e. attentive purposeful, vigilant.Ö

Developed mind Ö occurs because of the interrelations of actors in the system, such that an organization's mental process exists which increases alertness. The ability of an organization to identify data, give meaning to it because of strong sense making mechanisms and agree upon ways of viewing new stimuli result in a sense of developed collective mind Ö we suggest that a developed mind will ultimately be more beneficial to an organization than developed group.

Dumaine, B. (1994): "Mr Learning Organization", FORTUNE, No. 10: 95-101.

Duncan, R. and Weiss, A. (1979): "Organizational Learning - Implications for Organizational Design", in Straw, B. (ed.) :Research in Organizational Behavior, Greenwich, CT, JAI Press, Vol. 1: 75-123.

Easterby-Smith, M. (ND): "Creating a Learning Organisation", Personnel Review, Vol. 19, No. 5: 24-8.

Easterby-Smith, M. (1996): "Disciplines of the Learning Organization: Contributions and Critiques", paper presented for the Symposium on Organisational Learning and the Learning Organisation : Theoretical and Research Developments, The Management School. Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK, 1 - 3 September.

The paper argues against attempts to create a single framework for understanding organizational learning. Relevant literature is reviewed from six disciplinary perspectives: psychology and OD, management science; sociology and organizational theory; strategy; production management and anthropology. It is argued that each discipline provides distinct contributions and conceptions of problems. Furthermore, a basic distinction is drawn between organizational learning and the new idea of the learning organization is noted. Whereas the former is discipline based and analytic, the latter is multi-disciplinary and emphasises action and the creation of an 'ideal type' of organization.

Due to the diversity of purpose and perspective it is suggested that it is better to consider organizational learning as a multi-disciplinary field containing complementary contributions and research agendas (Abstract by Easterby-Smith, 1996)

Edmondson, A. and Moingeon, B. (1996): "From Organizational Learning to the Learning Organization: Toward an Integrative Approach'", paper presented Academy of Management Conference , Cincinnati, Ohio, 9-14 August (Conference Proceedings: Tuesday: 92)

Egelhoff, W. G. et al. (1996): "Organizational Learning in MNCs: The Flow of Knowledge between Irish Subsidiaries and other Parts of the Company'", paper Presented Academy of Management Conference , Cincinnati, Ohio, 9-14 August (Conference Proceedings: Tuesday: 92)

Eisman, R. (1995): "Learning curve" Incentive- Vol. 169,No. 12: 40-41

Emrich, C. G. (1996): "Cognitive Schemas and Idiosyncratic Resources: A Cognitive- Based View of Firm Resources and Performance" paper Presented Academy of Management Conference, Cininnati, Ohio, 9-14 August ( Monday: Conference Proceedings: 63)

Evamy, M. (1994): "Organizations Learning to Succeed: Resource Book, , London , BBC For Business.

Fearon, D. and Cavaleri, S. (1991): Concurrent learning: Theory and practice, Unpublished manuscript. (refer Fern Marriott, Monash Uni).

Field, L and Ford, , B. (1990): "Identifying the learning opportunities in a chemical plant shutdown," ICI/ Department of Education, Employment and Training [available from LRU, Faculty of Education, University of Technology, Sydney]

Field, L. and Ford, B. (1995): Managing Organizational Learning : From Rhetoric to Reality, Melbourne, Vic. Longman Publishers

As reviewed by Paul Farrell (in AUSINDUSTRY, Jan -mar 1996: 30) this is "a detailed and academic textÖ For those who are interested in the nitty-gritty of the subject, the final chapter provides a user-friendly five-page summary.

Filipczak, B. (1993): "I am a learning organization", Training, Vol. 30. No. 2: 10.

Fiol. C. M. (1994): "Consensus, Diversity, and Learning in Organizations," Organization Science, Vol. 5: 403-20.

Fiol, C. M. and Lyles, M. A. (1985): "Organizational Learning", Academy of Management Review, Vol. 10, No. 4: 803-13.

Flower, J. (1996): "We are what we can learn", Healthcare Forum Journal Vol. 39, No. 4: 35-39

A learning organization is a vision of the continual development of an organization, its people, its capabilities, its capacity to enhance or create its own future

Ford, B. (1987): "Innovative approaches to work: Learning from others", Commission for the future - Occasional paper no. 6. Canberra, Australian Government Printing Service.

Ford, B. (1991) "The learning enterprise : Integrating total quality management and workplace reform and renewal," TQMI 2nd National Conference, Melbourne, 21-22 August, Conference papers: 59-63.

Ford, C. M. and Ogilvie, D. T. (1996): "The Role of Creative Action in Organizational learning and Change" , Special issue of Journal of Organizational Change Management - Organizational Learning: Past, Present, and Future, Journal of Organizational Change Management , Vol. 9, No. 1.

Organizational learning is most frequently depicted as an intra-organizational information processing activity. However, the role that experience plays in the development of organizational knowledge has recently become a more central focus of learning theories. Yet, the two primary perspectives on organizational learning present strikingly different depictions of the relationship between action and learning. Systems-Structural models of organizational learning based on positivist epistemological assumptions emphasize internally-directed information collection and distribution activities aimed at reducing uncertainty. Conversely, interpretive models utilize an interpretivist epistemology that emphasizes the necessity of taking action in ambiguous circumstances as a means of creating knowledge. Unfortunately, neither of these alternative views of organizational learning describe how learning outcomes vary as a

consequence of different types of action. Specifically, previous models of organizational learning have not emphasized the critical role that creative actions play in the development of organizational knowledge. This paper delineates assumptions that serve to legitimize creative action taking within organizational contexts, and describes the learning outcomes that result from creative and routine actions. This framework extends previous models of organizational learning that emphasize cognition and communication processes by distinguishing the varied influences that different actions have on the production of knowledge. (Abstract in Special issue' Emphasis added: - Ford, C. M. and Ogilvie, D. T. (1996):)

Freed, G. (1992): Fifth Generation Innovation, Sydney, NSW, Centre for Innovation and International Competitiveness, Occasional Paper.

Friedlander, F. (1983): "Patterns of Individual and Organizational Learning", in Suresh Srivastava and Associates (Eds.): The Executive Mind , San Francisco, Jossey- Bass: 192-220.

The executive role in guiding learning is to manage crisis and frustration: it is to manage differences; it is to manage power, contact, conflict, and tension. It is to navigate the organization through the transitions of self-confrontation and identity change it must undergo if it is to survive and grow (1983: 220)

Fulmer, R. M. (1990): "Executive Learning as a Strategic Weapon", Executive Development, Vol. 3, No. 3: 26.

Fulmer. R. M. (1993a): "Editorial" in Journal of Management Development, Vol. 12, No. 5: 4-6.

Editorial outlines concept of anticipatory learning which "involves two characteristics (future orientation along with its participation" Fulmer presents a two-by-two matrix of 'How organizations Learn", with PARTICIPATION on the vertical axis and Orientation (Present or Future) on the Horizontal. Fulmer labels the 4 quadrants as A: "Because I say so" (i.e. an authority figure says something is to be done (or avoided) : this style is "the essence of maintenance learning"; B. "As you like it" learning where provided executives "meet their "operating bogie" the means by which they proceed is often left to the creativity of the executive team (Fulmer, 1993: 5); C. is the "Change Master" quadrant, which is equivalent to a style of visionary learning; and D. is labelled as "Inventing the future". Fulmer states that essentially "anticipatory learning is for a group of motivated individuals to work together not to forecast, but to create a future hey feel committed to (Fulmer, 1993a: 5)."

Fulmer. R. M. (1993b): "The Tools of Anticipatory Learning", Journal of Management Development, Vol. 12, No. 5: 7-14.

Fulmer, W. E. (1993c): "Anticipatory Learning: The Seventh Strategic imperative for the Twenty-first Century:, Journal of Management Development, Vol. 12, no. 6: 61-6.

Fulmer, R. M. (1994): "A model for changing the way organizations learn", Planning Review, , No. 3-4: 20-4.

Fulmer, R. M. and Franklin, Sr. S. G. (1994): "The Merlin Exercise: Creating Your Future Through Strategic Anticipatory Learning:, Journal of Management Development, Vol. 13, No. 8: 38-43.

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Organization-Studies. Vol. 17, No. 2: 249-268

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Ghosal, S. and Bartlett, C. A. (1994): "Linking Organizational Context and Managerial Action: The Dimensions of Quality of Management", Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 15: 91-112.

Organizational context is created and renewed through tangible and concrete management actions. The context, in turn, influences the actions of all those within the company. They argue that "an interactive development of context and action Ö lies at the core of a company's management process and is a key influencer of its performance (1994: 91)." Four primary dimensions of organizational context are identified from a longitudinal study of one company: discipline, stretch, trust, and support. These four dimensions "influence the levels of individual initiative, mutual cooperation and collective learning within companies. (1994: 91)." The quality of organizational context they argue is a "good measure of what Doz and Prahalad (1988) have referred to as an organisation's 'quality of management' (1994: 92)." These four dimensions, Ghosal and Bartlett suggest can be created and reinforced by a variety of macro and micro level actions taken by managers at all levels of an organization (1994: 95). Ghosal and Bartlett propose, inter alia, that 'organizational learning results from a combination of distributed initiative and mutual cooperation which, in turn, require stretch, trust, discipline and support as the antecedent conditions of organizational context (1994: 107).' The conclusion is that the central task of general managers is shaping the organizational context.

Gibb, P. (1993): "Creating the learning organization: A collaborative journey", in ??????????????????????????, San Francisco, Interaction Associates.

Giles, P. J. (1996): "Knowledge Sharing; The First Steps to Creating a Learning Organisation", paper presented at the Australian Systems Conference: Learning through Systems Thinking, Monash University, Caulfield, Vic, 29 Sept. - 2 October

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The importance of Prahalad and Bettis' concept of dominant logic is in emphasizing business relatedness at the strategic rather than operational level. By examining dominant logic in relation to the functions of systems of corporate management, it is possible to operationalize the concept of dominant logic and identify the key components of relatedness at the strategic level. (1988: 639).

Gregory, M. (1994): "Accrediting Work-Based Learning: Action Learning - A Model of Empowerment", Journal of Management Development, Vol. 13, No. 4: 41- 52.

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Hedlund develops a model of knowledge management which builds on the 'interplay of articulated and tacit knowledge at four different levels: the individual, the small group, the organization, and the interorganizational domain. (1994: 73). The model is used to compare differences in Western and Japanese patterns of knowledge management in respect of organizational characteristics such as (i) employment systems; (ii) career patterns; (iii) and organization structure. Hedlund argues that "effective knowledge management requires departure from the logic of hierarchical organization and the M-form structure' , with an alternative N-form being suggested as more appropriate. Such a variant organizational structure "entails combination of knowledge rather than its division (1994: 73): it also features "the temporary constellations of people, the importance of personnel at 'lower levels', ;lateral communication, a catalytic and architectural role for top management, strategies aimed at focussing and economies of depth, and heterarchical structures (1994: 73).

Heracleous, L. (1995): "Spinning a brand new cultural web", People Management Vol 1, No. 22: 24-27

Organizational learning is the process by which organizations change their cultures and systems in relation to market conditions. Organizations must do this in order to improve their competitiveness and achieve a sustainable competitive advantage. Organizational learning is about having the appropriate culture, structure and systems to encourage people to develop continually and share knowledge with others. Cultural change necessitates higher-level of double-loop learning because a change in cultural values and beliefs implies a change in the governing variables for action. The cultural web is a powerful way of gaining a deeper understanding of the internal situation of an organization. (BPO 21/ 9 /96]

Herriot, S. R., Levinthal, D. and March, J. G. (1983): "Learning from experience in organizations," American Economic Review, Vol. 75: 298-302.

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Hodgson, A. (1992): "Hexagons for systems thinking", European Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 59: 220-30.

Honey, P. (1989): "The opportunist learner", Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Management Education and Development on the 'individual learner' , Chipping Norton, Oxon.

Honey, P. and Mumford, A. (1983): Using Your Learning Styles, Maidenhead, England, Honey P. and Mumford, M.

Honey, P. and Mumford, A. (1989): Manual of Learning Opportunities, Maidenhead, England, Honey P. and Mumford, M.

Fully explains Honey and mumford's Learning Diagnostic Questionnaire.

Honey, P. and Mumford, A. (1992): Manual of Learning Styles, Maidenhead, England, Honey and Mumford.

Honold, L. (1991): "The power of learning at Johnsonville Foods", Training, Vol. 4: 55-8.

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Huber, G. P. (1991): "Organizational Learning: The Contributing Processes and the Literature", Organization Science, Vol. 2, No. 1: 88-115.

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Johnson, K . E. (1996): 'The social nature of learning " Healthcare Forum Journal. Vol 9. No. 4.

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James, D. (1997): "BHP management school will nurture new leadership style" Business Review Weekly, February 10: 44-46.

Article outlines BHP's corporate level innovative decision to transform itself "from a relatively bureaucratic company into a "learning organisation" based on the application of unique knowledge (James, 1997: 44)." Article concludes with comments that (i) senior management support is crucial (James, 1997: 46); and (2) a BHP senior executive (corporate manager of organisation and management development) states "I reckon it is a five to eight-year job. (James, 1997: 46)."

Janov, J. E. (1995): "Creating meaning: The heart of learning communities", Training and Development, Vol. 49, No. %: ???

Jelinek. (1979) Institutionalising Innovation, New York, Praeger Publishers.

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Jones, P. H. and Jordan, J. (1996): "Managing Know-how: Psychological Perpsectives", International Federation of Scholarly Associations in Management 3rd World Conference, Paris., 8-11 July: 193-4.

This paper views tacit knowledge as equivalent to know-how. Tacit knowledge, or know-how, stands in contrast to explicit knowledge, which is articulated in symbolic form, usually language. Ö We suggest there are two kinds of tacit know-how: that which is learned through interaction with the non-social world (equivalent to procedural knowledge) and that which is learned through social interaction (equivalent to practical knowledge). Both Ö [types] are usually held at the tacit level. Ö Önon-social know-how is developed through trial and error learning or the use of problem-solving techniques, e.g. the use of analogy Ö Experimental evidence (Anderson, 1987) suggests that at some point learning may take a step-wise leap: this can occur where there is a cognitive shift in understanding which results in a quantitative change in the nature of the individual's knowledge. Instead of it being in conscious awareness knowledge shifts to the unconscious level: it becomes automatic or tacit in nature.

Social know-how stands in contrast to non-social know-how in that it involves collective and creative action by those involved in its development. Ö Social know-how is tied to the social context within which it is produced in a fundamental way. Its development is dependent on story-telling by organizational communities: stories transmit to members of the group the ways in which problems have been solved. This leads to the development of a sophisticated knowledge base which encompasses the may factors that need to be taken into account by group members when solving a problem. Moreover, social know-how may include the redefinition of problems through discussion by members of the group. Paper concludes with several implications for managers.

Kempin, G. (1994) : Learning Environments in Social and Community Services: A Starting Point, Learning Environment Action Research Project, SACS Industry Training Board Publication.

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Kim, D. H. (1990b): "Learning laboratories: Designing a reflective learning environment", Working Paper No. D-4026, Cambridge, Mass., Massachusetts Institute of Technology Systems Dynamic Group.

Kim, D. H. (1992) : "Organizational Learning and Individual Learning: Where the twain shall Meet?", Working Paper D-4114-1, Cambridge, Mass, MIT Sloan School of Management.

Kim, D. H. (1993): :"The link between individual and organizational learning", Sloan Management Review, Vol. 35, No. 1: 37-50.

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Klimecki, R. G., Lassleben H. and Riexinger-Li, B. (1994): Exploring the Process of Organizational Learning: an empirical study using cognitive maps and network analysis, Konstance, FRG. University of Constance, Faculty of Administrative Science Working Paper.

Design and results of an explorative study on organizational learning (OL) are presented. OL is conceptualized as transformations of organizational reality constructions. Reality constructions are represented as cognitive maps and communication structures as social networks. This allows description and analysis of OL systems and leads to new insights into OL processes (Abstract provided by the authors)

The research project was conducted using narrative interviews in the local administrations of two German cities. Cognitive mapping techniques and social network analysis were used for representation and further analysis. Individual cognitive maps were converted into organizational maps by comparison and aggregation. Network analysis was used to represent and analyse the communication structures (which are relevant to learning) of, and between organizational members

Four of the major conclusions drawn from this exploratory survey . (1) OL means "networking" since organizationally shared reality constructions evolve along network relations rather than according to departmental and hierarchical levels (1994: 54). (2) 'Visioning" (creating a shared vision) and "structuring" (building new structures in order to readjust and coordinate activities) are two distinct types of learning orientation both of which "mark different 'take off ' points for the transformation of organizational mental models (1994: 54). (3) The type of learning pursued influences the perceived need for change" :

"Comparison of the organizational maps shows that the gap between "desired state" of the organization and its current "real conditions" (i.e. the need for transformation) is larger in the OL system which concentrates "only" on the

establishment of new structures than that which pulls itself forward by creating new visions (1994: 54)."

(4) The perceived domain of power determines the scope of OL : "the imagination (sic) of having power is the most important intervening factor for the scope of the learning efforts: in this study network analysis reveals that although both OL systems "are embedded in the same political and legal frame" there are differences in the perception of being in control, with those following the "visioning" type of learning orientation assessing its power as high whereas those in the "structuring " OL orientation "ascribes power predominantly to political authorities outside the administration (1994: 54)."

The authors lastly conclude that "(top) managers initialize and catalyze learning activities when they (1) function as turntables of communication processes (i.e they show "high communicativeness and responsiveness") ; and (2) believe in the power of visions and are seen "nourishing employees' beliefs in being self-controlled and in transmitting the "powerful vision of the power of visions" (1994: 54)

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The {dialectical] model identifies four analytic stages in problem management - situation analysis, problem analysis, solution analysis, and implementation analysis. Within each stage, analysis is based on dialectically opposed phases - valuing and priority setting in situation analysis, information gathering and problem definition in problem analysis, idea getting and decision making in solution analysis, and participation and planning in implementation analysis. Problem management involves adopting the appropriate cognitive mind set for each stage and phase. Problem solving is both a cognitive and a social process. Social factors that can facilitate or hinder effective problem-solving management are the organization's structure and an executive's role in it, the extent to which an organization emphasizes the red-mode or green-mode mind set, and the way conflict is used in problem management (1983: 143).

Kolb, D. (1986):Experiential Learning, New Jersey, Prentice Hall.

Kolb, D. et al. (1985? ): Experiential Organisation Behavior, Englewood Cils, NJ. Prentice Hall Inc: 56-64.

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Lant, T. K, Milliken, F. J. and Batra, ... (1992): "The Role of Managerial Learning and interpretation in Strategic Persistence and Reorientation: An Empirical Exploration", Strategic Management Journal, Vol,.13,: 585-608.

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A theoretical framework for the study of organizational learning in marketing channels is developed, based on: 1. the degrees of learning subprocesses, and 2. the cognitive levels of learning. Task-specific, environmental, and organizational factors are also incorporated into the framework. Potential features of organizational memory are explored and propositions are developed to clarify the relationships between the various constructs on the basis of past research and a series of case studies. Research directions are developed to guide future empirical testing of the theoretical framework advanced.

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McGill, M. E., Slocum, Jr. J. W and Lei, D. (C. 1992): "Management Practices in Learning Organizations", Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 21, No. 1: 5- 17.

The paper focuses on the differences between two styles of learning : adaptive learning and "generative" learning.. The authors argue that adaptive learning while being more common than generative learning in organizations is only really effective in situations where the organizations competitive environment remains relatively stable (1991: 8). Generative learning is characterized by five dimensions: openness, systemic thinking, creativity, a sense of efficacy and empathy (1991: 10). In turn, each dimension has unique requirements and specific managerial practices which promote its occurrence within organizations.

These practices encourage, foster, recognize, and reward openness, systemic thinking, creativity, personal efficacy, and empathy. In turn, these behaviors result in learning, in as much as they expand rather than limit managerial experience.

Building learning organizations requires that leaders develop employees who see their organization as a system, who can develop their own personal mastery, and who learn how to experiment and collaboratively reframe problems. Ö

Ö Yet, generative learning in many ways works against the experience and training of managers accustomed to reward systems and cultures that foster adaptive learning. The process of "un-learning" previous mindsets is a difficult task in itself. Inculcation of such organizational features as empathy, humility, and personal efficacy are vital first steps to help the firm move away from static, risk-avers patterns of behavior to pro-active, risk-taking learning (1991: 16) (Abstract by Odgers)

McGill, M. E., Slocum, Jr. (1993):" Unlearning the organization", Organizational Dynamics, Vol,.22, No. 3:: 67-79.

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Mai, R. (1995): Learning Partnerships, New York, Irwin Professional Publishing.

Book features 2 dozen case studies of employee involvement programs which Maritz Performance improvement Co. has developed for clients. Mai has highlighted those companies he considers outstanding examples of "learning organizations".

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March, J. and Olsen, J. (1976): "Organizational Learning and the Ambiguity of the Past", in March, J. and Olsen, J. (Eds), Ambiguity and Choice in Organizations, Bergen: 54-67.

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Marsick, V. J. (1990): "Experience-based Learning: Executive Learning outside the Classroom", Journal of Management Development, Vol. 9, no. 4: 50-60.

Marsick, V. J. et al. (1992): "Action-reflection learning", Training and Development

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Marsick, V. (1993): "Experience-based Learning: Executive Learning outside the Classroom," Journal of Management Development, Vol. 12, No. 2: 50-60.

Marsick, V. J. (1987): Learning in the Workplace, New York, Croom Helm.

Provides a framework for studying informal learning.

Martin, R. (1993): "Changing the mind of the corporation", Harvard Business Review, Nov-Dec.: 87-94.

Martin, S. and Kehoe, B. (1991): "Organization Change: Developing a Learning Organization and Adapting to Change", Training and Development in Australia, Vol. 17, No. 1: 7-10.

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Creation, Transformation, and Decline of Organizations, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.

Miles, R. H. and Randolph, W. A. (1980): "Influence of Organizational Learning Styles on Early Development", in Kimberley, J. .R and Miles, R. .H and Associates (Eds): The Organizational Life Cycle: Issues in the Creation, Transformation, and Decline of Organizations, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.

Mills, D. and Friesen, B. (1992): "The learning organization", European Management Journal , Vol. 10, June: 146-56.

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A broad review of theory and research about organizations as social, information processing, interpretive, and inquiry systems locates the origins of key concepts behind organization learning. This shows how different schools of thought explain what is behind routine versus creative action in organizations and what might be done to help people to collectively unlearn old habits and develop new behaviors. A look at contemporary models and practices considers to what extent holistic thinking and work arrangements will promote organizational learning and how measures to enhance collective consciousness could enable people to learn how to learn. (Abstract from Special issue)

Mischke, G. A. (1996): "Learning to Do it Better: The Effects of Organization Resources and Traits on Cooperative Strategy for Research and Development", paper presented Academy of Management Conference , Cincinnati, Ohio, 9-14 August (Conference Proceedings: Tuesday: 92)

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Moenaert, R. K and Caeldries, F (1996): ".Architectural redesign, interpersonal communication, and learning in R&D", Journal of Product Innovation Management, Vol. 13, No. 4: 296-310

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77-105.

Morrigan, P. (1996): "Finding inspiration in the learning organisation", HR Monthly, May: 26-7.

The "learning organization" concept and organizational learning are not identical. Organizational learning has mostly occurred "within a sub-system of the whole organisation and with the need for continuous change, the status of this particular sub-system has gained more prominence over the past decade (Morrigan, 1996: 26)." On the other hand, the learning organisation "is the whole organisation." Morrigan argues that there are two dominant models of a learning organisation which can be gleaned from the existing literature. One is the Modern Rationalist Organisation which has only one objective: "an economic one based on improved productivity and competitiveness. (Morrigan, 196: 26). In such an organisation, which is a 'closed socio-technical one with boundaries that are "open" where the organisation and the customer or supplier interact ; 'learning is important for control of variance and maintaining equilibrium (Morrigan, 1996: 26)." Its culture is based on competitive individualism even where work is team-based because rewards and recognition are allocated on an individual basis". Learning in such a Modern Rationalist organisation is of an adaptive nature being :geared to the development of skills, a little ahead of the work to be performed (Morrigan, 1996: 26)." In comparison the other type of organisation is the Modern Democratic Learning organisation. In such enterprises, many related objectives are pursued. While it still is dependent ion economic survival" and therefore does pursue important economic objectives, it at the same time "would also be creating "social capital" making a contribution to society and culture, and acting responsibly towards environmental resources (Morrigan , 1996: 26)." Its organisational systems are more open and holistic, with the boundaries being defined strategically, according to need (Morrigan ,1996: 26)." Unlike the modern Rationalist organisation, the culture in a modern democratic one is "one of diversity with shared vision, cooperation, and partnerships of many kinds.". With respect to the type of learning it pursues, a modern democratic learning organisation "grows out of "generative learning" where adaptive learning is only one of the many levels achieved (Morrigan, 1996: 27)." Morrigan argues that Peter Senge's five disciplines "are a good place to look for a beginning for generative learning. Morrigan concludes by offering several design principles to aid in developing and managing generative learning environments .

Mullen, E. (ed.), (1995): "Building Communities of Commitment", The Systems Thinker: Building Shared Understanding, Vol. 5, No. 10: 1-6.

Mumford, A. (1980): Making Experience Pay: Management Success Through Effective Learning, London ,McGraw-hill.

Mumford, A. (1988): "Learning and development: Influences, " in Mumford, A. (ed.), Developing Top Managers, London, , Gower Publishing Company: 177- 93.

Mumford, A. (1991): "Learning in Action" Personnel Management Vol. 23 No. 7 (July) : 34-37

Action learning Ö did not gain widespread acceptance until the 1970s, when Reg Revans published a book on the topic. Some of the essential elements of action learning include: 1. Learning for managers should mean learning to take effective action. 2. Learning to take effective action necessarily involves actually taking action, not recommending action or undertaking analysis of someone else's problem. 3. The best form of action for learning is work on a defined project that is significant to the managers themselves. 4. Managers learn best with and from each other. 5. The social process is achieved and managed through regular meetings of managers to discuss individual projects. 6. The role of the group (set) is not to teach, but to help managers learn from exposure to problems and to each other. To be an effective strategy in the 1990s, action learning must be extended outside the set to include all those who will influence task performance and achieved learning. (ABI.INFORM 91-38502 Abstract: emphasis added)

Mumford, A. (1993): Helping individuals to learn" in Mumford, A. (Ed.), How managers can develop managers, London Gower Publishing Company: 93-115.

Mumford, A. (1995): Learning at the Top, London , McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Mumford states at the outset of his personal reflection on learning g at the top (of organizations) that he is at the same time pleased, puzzled and sceptical about the "proliferating articles and books on the learning organization (1995: xv). Mumford is firstly pleased "because the concept that at organization could both provide a context for, and be the active force in, a learning process provides great potential. (1995: xv). Mumford is puzzled "because the concepts and constructs of organizational learning often seem elusive, sometimes seem contradictory with each other, and sometimes seem to claim purposes and achievements at a higher level than most dreamt of in my philosophy (1995: xv)." His scepticism may partly arise from his personal and "now lengthy experience in management development, and of my awareness of the susceptibility of management development to flavours of the year and to my personal styles of thinking and learning, which emphasize analysis and reflection (1995: xv)." Mumford defines a learning organization as "one that creates an environment where the behaviours and practices involved in continuous development are actively encouraged (1995: xx)

Nevis, E. C., DiBella, A. and Gould, J. M. (1995): "Understanding organizations as learning systems", Sloan Management Review, Vol 23., Winter: 73-85.

Newman, W. (1991): "Interfirm diversity, organizational learning, longevity in global alliances'" Journal of International Business Studies Vol. 2 No. 4: 579-601.

Nicolini, D. and Meznar, M. B. (1995): "The social construction of organizational learning: Conceptual and practical issues in the field", Human Relations Vol. 48, No,. 7: 727-46.

The field of organizational learning has been characterized by a wide diversity of opinions, definitions, and conceptualizations. Organizational learning (OL) cannot be understood without taking into account the continuous ongoing change of organizational cognitive structures. However, learning is only recognized wh en an observer identifies and contextualizes those changes. Thus, OL can be interpreted as a social construction which transforms acquired knowledge into accountable abstract knowledge. The implications of this conceptualization of learning on management practice and organizational research are discussed (Abstract downloaded from BPO 19/ 10 /96)

Nonaka, I. (1991): "The knowledge creating company", Harvard Business Review

Vol. 69, No. 6: 96-104.

Nonaka, I. (1994): "A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge" Organization Science, Vol. 5: 14-37.

Nonaka, I. and Johansson, J. (1985): "Organizational learning in Japanese companies", in Lamb, R. and Shrivastava, P. (Eds.) Advances in Strategic Management, Vol. 3, Greenwich, CT, JAI Press: 277-96.

Norman, D. (1976): Memory and Attention, Second Edition, New York, Wiley.

Prahalad and Bettis (1986) draw on Normna's discussion of schemas ie. beliefs, theories and propositions people develop over time based on personal experiences.

Novak, J. D. and Gowan, D.B. (1984): "Concept mapping for meaningful learning", in Novak, J. D. and Gwen, D.B. (Eds.), Learning how to learn, Cambridge, Mass. , Cambridge University Press.

Nyhan, B. (1991): Developing people's ability to learn: A European perspective on self-learning competency and technological change, Brussels, European Inter- University Press.

Nystrom, P. C. and Starbuck, W. H. (1984): "To avoid organizational crisis, unlearn", Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 12, No.4: 53-65.

Odgers. J. F. (1995): :"What have we learnt about organizational learning?" Paper presented at the Second Annual Conference of Strategic Management Educators, LaTrobe University, Melbourne. April 1995.

While there is (1) no standard definition of organizational learning [Garvin, 1993; Shrivastava, 1983], there are some developing agreements about (2) why it is becoming a strategic imperative [e.g. de Geus, 1988; McGill and Slocum, 1994]; (3) about what it relies upon [Garvin, 1993;McGill & Slocum, 1994;Senge,1992] ; (4) about what sorts of organizational characteristics and behaviours will potentially ensure that an organization does enhance its ability to learn [e.g. de Geus, 1988, Garvin, 1993; McGill and Slocum, 1994; Senge, 1992] and (5) the very real difficulties of implanting learning in organizations [de Geus, 1988; Garvin, 1993; McGill and Slocum, 1994; Stacey, 1993]

This paper aims to review and critique our current store of knowledge about organizational learning around these five issues.

Odgers, J. F. (1996): "Book review: Learning at the top", ASTOLg Newsletter, Vol. 3, Issue 3: (December): 21-22.

Orr. J. F. I. (1993): "Learning to learn: The new logic of learning," Vital Speeches, Vol. 59, No. 23: 725-2.

Ortenblad, A. (1996): "Beginning to understand the concept of the learning organization: from ambiguity to creativity", paper presented for the Symposium on Organisational Learning and the Learning Organisation : Theoretical and Research Developments, The Management School. Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK, 1 - 3 September.

Ortenblad (1996) argues that it is difficult to understand the concept of the learning organization because of such reasons as (1) the vagueness of some of the underlying assumptions presented in the literature; (2) the 'popularity' of some of the theories involved. The paper concludes with a (1) the suggestion of a classification "based on who is learning and where knowledge is located, which results in three different subconcepts of the LO [Learning organization}"; and (2) an stated uncertainty as to whether "the positive organizations where everyone works for the best (sic) of the organization should necessarily be called learning organizations (1996: 14)"

Osland, G. .E and Yaprak, A. (1995): "Learning through strategic alliances: Processes and factors that enhance marketing effectiveness", European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 29, No. 3: 52-66. (JO has copy: Notify ASTOL g)

Pearn, M. A., Roderick, C. and Mulrooney, C. (1995): Learning organizations in Practice, London, McGraw- Hill. (Jo has summary)

Offer an alternative model of organizational learning (the INVEST model). Present a full Learning Audit comprising a self-administered checklist broken into five separate parts. It is designed to assess "individual and group learning ability and to sustain learning: in the organization as a whole; in the individual's department of function; by the individual's own line managers or supervisor; by the training and / or HR function; (and) by inviting more general comments from the participants about the sorts of things which hinder or prevent them learning at work, and also the things they think would encourage or support them learning a work (1995: 89)

Pedler, M. (1992a): "Biography work for organisational learning: Strategy or destiny?", Management Education and Development, Vol. 23, No. 3: 258- 70.

Pedler, M. (ed.) (1992): Action learning ion practice, Aldershot Hants England, Gower.

Pedler, M. (1995a): Creating the learning organization, London, BBC for Business.

Pedler, M. (1995b): "A guide to the learning organization", Industrial and Commercial Training Vol. 27, No. 4,: 21-25.

Pedler, M., T. Boydell, and J. Burgoyne (1989): "Towards the learning company", Management Education and Development Vol. 20, No. 1: 1-8.

Pedler, M., Burgoyne, J. and Boydell, J. (1991): The Learning Company: A Strategy for Sustainable Development, Maidenhead, UK, McGraw Hill Book Company.

Pennings, J. M, Barkema, H. and Douma, S. (1994): "Organizational learning and diversification", Academy of Management Review, Vol. 37. No. 3: 608-40.

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Pisano, G. P. (1994): "Knowledge, Integration, and the locus of learning: An Empirical Analysis of Process Development, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 15, Special Issue:, Winter: 85-100.

Pisano, G. P. (1996): "Learning by -doing versus Learning-Before-Doing: Evidence from Pharmaceuticals," paper presented Academy of Management Conference, Cininnati, Ohio, 9-14 August (CCC 214 Monday: Conference Proceedings: 39)

Pittenger, J. E. and Gooding, C. T. (1971): Learning Theories in Education and Practice, New York, Wiley.

Powell, W. W, Koput, K. W and Smith, D. L. (1996): "Interorganizational collaboration and the locus of innovation: Networks of learning in biotechnology" Administrative Science Quarterly. Vol. 41,. No. 1: 116-145.

It is argued that when the knowledge base of an industry is both complex and expanding and the sources of expertise are widely dispersed, the locus of innovation will be found in networks of learning, rather than in individual firms. The large-scale reliance on interorganizational collaborations in the biotechnology industry reflects a fundamental and pervasive concern with access to knowledge. A network approach to organizational learning is developed, and a firm-level, longitudinal hypotheses are derived that link research and development alliances, experience with managing interfirm relationships, network position, rates of growth and portfolios of collaborative activities. These hypotheses are tested on a sample of dedicated biotechnology firms in the years 1990-1994. Results support a learning view and have broad implications for future theoretical and empirical research. (Abstract supplied by BPO 21/9/96)

Prahalad, C. K. and Bettis, R. A. (1986): The Dominant Logic: A New Linkage Between Diversity and Performance", Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 7, No. 6: 485-501.

The purpose of this paper is to propose an additional 'linkage', conceptual at this stage, that might help our understanding of the crucial connection between diversity and performance. The conceptual argument is intended as a 'supplement' to the current lines of research, rather than as an alternative. This linkage is referred to as the 'dominant general management logic' (or dominant logic) and consists of the mental maps developed through experience in the core business and sometimes applied inappropriately in the new business (1986: 485)

Prange, C. (1996): "Organizational Learning - desperately seeking theory?" paper presented for the Symposium on Organisational Learning and the Learning Organisation : Theoretical and Research Developments, The Management School. Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK, 1 - 3 September.

Prange (1996) contends that while concepts of organizational learning abound in the literature, an "integrated theory is still missing". Prange argues that "most useful research in organizational learning is confronted with the quest for 'usefulness' which is inherently detrimental to 'theory building' in the traditional sense. In contrast, focusing on 'practicality' in organizational learning research, and purporting the critical use of metaphors and/or analogies may be more adequate for the theoretical development of the field (taken from Prange !996) Abstract)".

Prideaux, G. and Ford, J. F. (1988): "Management Development: Competencies, Teams, Learning Contracts and Work Experience Based Learning", Journal of Management Development, Vol. 7, No. 3: 13-21.

Pucik, V. (1988): "Strategic alliances, organizational learning, and competitive advantage: the HRM Agenda", Human Resource Management Vol. 27, No. 1: 77-93. (Notified ASTOL g 19/12/ 96).

Pun, A. S. L. (1990): "Managing the Cultural Differences in Learning", Journal of Management Development, Vol. 9, No. 5: 35-40.

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Quinn, J. B. (1992): Intelligent Enterprise: A Knowledge and Service Based Paradigm for Industry, New York, The Free Press.

Quinn Mills D. and Friesen, B:. (1992): "The learning organization", European Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2: 146-56.

Ramirez, R. (1983): "Action learning: A strategic approach for organizations facing turbulent conditions", Human Relations, Vol. 36, No,. 8: 725-42.

Randars, J. (ed.), (1980): Elements of the systems dynamics model: International conference on Systems Dynamics, Cambridge, Mass. MIT Press.

Redding, J. C. and Catalanello, R. F. (1994): Strategic Readiness: The Making of

of Learning Organization, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.

Revans, R. W. (1980): Action Learning, London, Blond and Briggs.

Revans, R. (1982): The Origins and Growth of Action Learning, Bromley, Chartwell- Bratt.

Rheem, H. (1995): "The learning Organization" Harvard Business Review, Vol. 73, No. 2: 10

Richardson, G. (1986): "Problems with causal loop diagrams", System Dynamics Review ,Vol. 2, No. 2: 158-70.

Richardson, G. and Pugh, A. (1981): Introduction to system dynamics modelling with DYNAMO, Cambridge, Mass., Productivity Press.

Richmon, B., Demello, S. and Gardner, B. H. (1995): "Welcome to virtual learning", Healthcare Forum. Vol. 38, No. 5, pp: 57-60

Major strides have been made over the past decade in both understanding and supporting organizational learning. Computer-assisted learning laboratories are among these major advances. By simulating real management situations and processes, these programs create an opportunity to "learn by doing" on a no-risk practice field. The Healthcare Forum began its exploration of the use of computer-assisted learning for healthcare leaders with the development of the Mastering the Transition to Capitation Microworld, the first health care industry-specific learning laboratory program in national use. The learning goal of the recently released Optimizing Health of a Defined Population is to build understanding of a complex system - the relationship between a population needing care and the delivery system that assumes responsibility for that population. [Abstract from BPO 21/9/96]

Richter, F. J. (1995): "Successful joint ventures in Japan: Transferring knowledge through organizational learning", Long Range Planning, Vol. 28, No. 3: 37-45.

Richter, I. (1996): "Organizational Learning and Executive-level communities of practice: Rationale and Research Consideration", paper presented for the Symposium on Organisational Learning and the Learning Organisation : Theoretical and Research Developments, The Management School. Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK, 1 - 3 September.

Robbins, L. (1996): "Action Research as a Means to Organizational Learning: Organizational Learning as a Result of Action Research", paper presented Academy of Management Conference, Cininnati, Ohio, 9-14 August ( Monday: Conference Proceedings: 44)

Roering, W. et al. (1994): "The Role of Managerial Learning Style in Strategy Process Choices ", Second Conference , International Federation for Scholarly Associations in Management, Dallas, TX: 17 - 19 August.

Romme, G. (1996): "Making Organization Learning Work: Consent and Double Linking Between Circles", European Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1: 69- 75.

Romme, A. G. L .(1997): "Organizational learning, circularity and double linking", Management Learning (forthcoming)

Roos, J and Von Krogh, .G (1996): "The epistemological challenge: managing knowledge and intellectual capital", European Management Journal. Vol. 14. No. 4: 333-337

Roth, A. V. et al. (1994): "The knowledge factory for accelerated learning practices", Planning Review, May-June: 26-33.

Roth, G. and Senge, P. (1996): "From Theory to Practice: Research Territory, Processes and Structure at an Organizational Learning Center", Special issue of Journal of Organizational Change Management - Organizational Learning: Past, Present, and Future, Journal of Organizational Change Management , Volume 9 Number 1.

By definition, all organizations that survive as their environment evolves are learning, at least to some degree. Yet we believe that the learning capabilities of most organizations are extremely limited, especially when learning requires that diverse constituencies build shared understanding of dynamically complex business environments. As such learning capabilities become increasingly needed, those organizations which possess them will have unique advantages. Discovering how organizations might develop such learning capabilities represents a unique opportunity for partnership between researchers and practitioners. To do this will require consensus about the research territory, research methods and goals, and how meaningful field projects can be designed and conducted. (Abstract in Special Issue)

Sahal, D. (1984): "The innovation Dynamics and Technology Life Cycels in the Computer industry", OMEGA: The International Journal of Management Science, Vol. 12, No. 2: 153-63.

Sashkin, M. and Franklin, S. (1993): "Anticipatory team learning: What is it and how does it happen?" Journal of Management Development Vol. 12, No. 6: 34-43.

Schein, D. (1993): "How can organizations learn faster: The challenges of entering the green room", Sloan Management Review, Vol. 34, No. 2: 85-92.

Schein, E. H. (1993): "On Dialogue, Culture, and Organizational Learning", Organizational Dynamics, Autumn: 40-51.

Schein, Edgar. H. (1996): "Culture: The missing concept in organization studies"

Administrative Science Quarterly. Vol. 41, No. 2229-240

Inattention to social systems in organizations has led researchers to underestimate the importance of culture - shared norms, values, and assumptions - in how organizations function. Concepts for understanding culture in organizations have value only when they derive from observation of real behavior in organizations, when they make sense of organizational data, and when they are definable enough to generate further study. The attempt to explain what happened to "brainwashed" American POWs in the Korean conflict points up the need to take both individual traits and culture into account to understand organizational phenomena. For example, the failure of organizational learning can be understood more readily by examining the typical responses to change by members of several broad occupational cultures in an organization. The implication is that culture needs to be observed, more than measured, if organization studies is to advance.

Schon, D. A. (1987): Educating the Reflective Practitioner, San Francisco, Jossey- Bass.

Seely Brown J. and Duguid, P. (1991): "Organizational Learning and Communities of Practice: Toward a Unified View of Working, Learning and Innovation", Organzation Science, Vol. 2, No. 1: 40-57.

Senge, P. M. (1984): "Systems thinking in business", ReVision, Vol. 7, No. 2.

Senge, P. M. (1985): "Systems dynamics, mental models and developing management intuition", Paper presented at Systems Dynamics Conference., Colorado.

Senge, P. M. (1990): "The Leader's New Work: Building Learning Organizations", Sloan Management Review, Fall: 7-23

Senge, P. M. (1991): "The learning organisation made plain", Training and Development, Vol .45, Oct: 37-44.

Senge, P. M. (1992): "Mental Models" Planning Review Vol. 20 No. 2 (Mar/Apr) 4- 10,44

The process of adoption fails because the new ideas are at such variance with mental models currently accepted by the organization. More specifically, new insights fail to be put into practice because they conflict with deeply held internal images of how things should be. The discipline of managing mental models - surfacing, testing, and improving internal pictures of how the world operates - promises to be a major breakthrough for building learning organizations. Developing a company's capacity to work with mental models involves learning new skills and implementing institutional innovations that help bring these skills into regular practice. The learning skills required to develop and manipulate mental models fall into 2 broad categories: skills of reflection and skills of inquiry. The most productive learning usually takes place when managers combine skills in advocacy and inquiry. (ABI.INFORM 92-26439 Abstract)

Senge, P. M. (1992): The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization, Sydney, Random House Aust. Pty. Ltd.

Senge, P. M (1993): Internal markets and Learning Organizations: Some Thoughts, Cambridge, Mass, MIT Press.

Senge, P. M. and Fulmer, R. M. (1993): "Simulations, systems thinking and anticipatory learning", Journal of Management Development, Vol. 12, No. 6: 21- 33.

Senge, P. M. (1995): "Learning Infrastructures", Executive Excellence Vol. 12, No. 2: 7.

Senker, J. (1996): "National systems of innovation, organizational learning and industrial biotechnology" Technovation Vol. 16, No. 5, 219-229

The effects of national systems of innovation on organizational learning by companies are discussed, and an examination is made of how this affects industrial structure. The analysis focused specifically on the industrial response by both large, existing companies and new small firms to the opportunities offered by biotechnology, and how far government policy and other factors have shaped the different patterns of industrial development which have evolved in the US and the UK. Availability of venture capital, investment in the science base, and national culture are found to be important factors which explain the different initial patterns of commercialization which emerged in the 2 countries. Evidence of considerable learning by British organizations leads to the conclusion that, as biotechnology matures, industrial structure in the 2 countries will converge. (Abstract provided through BPO)
 

Sharratt, P. and Field, L. (1993): "Organizational learning in Australian organizations: hollow rhetoric or attainable reality?" Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources Vol. 31: 129-41. (JO has copy of article has been summarised in EARLEIR.RES.STUDIES)

Shiba, S. and Graham, a. (1993): "TQM as a learning System", Centre for Quality Management Journal, Vol. 2, No. 1: 48-54.

Shrivastava, P. (1981): Strategic Decision-Making Process: The Influence of Organizational Learning and Experience, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh.

Shrivastava, P. (1983): "A Typology of Organizational Learning Systems" Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 20, No. i: 7-28.

Silverman, D. (1970), The Theory of Organizations, London, Heinemann.

Simon, H. A. (1991): "Bounded rationality and organizational learning", Organization Science, Vol. 2, No. 1: 125-134.

Simonin, B. L. and Duane, H. (1993): "Do organizations learn? An empirical test of organizational learning in international strategic alliances", in Moore. D. (ed.), Academy of Management Best Paper Proceedings (Notified ASTOL g 19-12- 96)

Sitkin, S. B. (1991): "Learning through Failure: The Strategy of Small Losses", Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 14: 231-66.

Slater, S. F (1995) : "Learning to change", Business Horizons., Vol 38, No. 6: 13-20 .

Leaders today are preoccupied with changing the way their organizations do business. The nature of change and the role of learning is discussed. The focus is on 3 key organizational features that are necessary, in combination, to produce higher-order organizational learning and its associated benefits of new product success, growth, and superior profitability. Learning organizations recognize the substantial opportunity to learn from collaborations with customers, suppliers, universities, and other potential learning partners. Research shows that continuous, innovative learning is most likely to occur in forms characterized by a facilitative, empowering style of leadership, a market-driven, entrepreneurial culture in which challenging the status quo is encouraged, and a structure that has flexible processes for communication, coordination, and conflict resolution among its own members and with its learning [Abstract from BPO 21/9/96]

Slater, S.F. and Narver, J. C. (1995): "Market orientation and the learning organization", Journal of Marketing Vol,. 59, No. 3: 63-74.

Smith, B. (1993): "Building managers from the inside out: Developing managers through competency-based action learning", Journal of Management Development, Vol. . 12, No. 1: 43-8.

Smith, D. J. (1992): "Company-based projects: Using Action Learning to Develop Consultancy Skills", Journal of Management Development, Vol. 11, no. 1: 12- 24.

Smith, R. M .(1990): Learning to learn across the Life Span, San Francisco, Jossey- Bass.

Snell, R. S . (1988): "The emotional cost of managerial learning at work", Management Education and Development, Vol. 19: 322-40.

Snell, R. S. (1990): "Congenial ways of learning: so near yet so far", Journal of Management Development, Vol. 9: 17-23.

Snell, R. Chak, A. M-K. (1996): "The learning organization: Learning and empowerment for whom?", paper presented for the Symposium on Organisational Learning and the Learning Organisation : Theoretical and Research Developments, The Management School. Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK, 1 - 3 September.

Sofo, F. (1993): "Strategies for developing a learning organization", Training and Development in Australia, Vol. 20, No. 3: 25-28.

Sohal, A and Morrison, M. (1995) "TQM and the learning organization" Managing Service-Quality. Vol. 5 No. 6: 32-34

Soloman, C. M. (1994): "HR facilitates the learning organization concept", Personnel Journal, Vol. 73, No. 11: 56-66.

Sonnenber, F. and Goldberg, B. (1992): "Encouraging employee-led change through constructive learning processes," Journal of Business Strategy, Vol. 13, No. 6: 53-6.

Sorohan, E. G. (1993): "We do, therefore we learn", Training and Development, Vol. 47, No. 10: 47-55.

Spender, J. C. (1994): "Knowing, managing, and learning: A dynamic managerial epistemology", Management Learning, Vol. 25, No. 3: 387-412.

Spender, J-C. (1996): " Organizational knowledge, learning and memory: Three concepts in search of a theory", Special issue of Journal of Organizational Change Management - Organizational Learning: Past, Present, and Future, Journal of Organizational Change Management , Volume 9 Number 1.

There is much interest in organizational knowledge following the recognition of its strategic place in inter-firm competition. But we lack an adequate theory of such knowledge, or of its acquisition, storage and application. Penrose's (1959) theory of the growth of the firm, Nelson and Winter's (1982) evolutionary economics, and the Gestalt notions of discontinuous perceptual change taken from Lewin (1935), still define the cutting edge of the learning and knowledge-based approaches to the firm. Compared with these field-shaping works, the recent literature on organizational knowledge, learning and memory seems inconclusive. We step back and take a new start from the Jamesian distinction between knowing what and knowing how, and the Durkheimian distinction between individual and social forms of knowledge. The resulting pluralistic organizational epistemology implies a dynamic theory of the firm as a dialectical system of knowledge processes. (Abstract from special issue: emphasis added:)

Srikantia , P and Pasmore, W. (1996): "Conviction and doubt in organizational learning", Special issue of Journal of Organizational Change Management -

Organizational Learning: Past, Present, and Future, Journal of Organizational Change Management , Volume 9 Number 1.

This paper examines the roles of conviction and doubt in organizational learning processes and focuses on the challenge of transforming individual learning into organizational learning. The individual and organizational effects of too little doubt or too little conviction are explored in terms of awareness of the need for organizational learning, the design of organizational learning processes, and active experimentation in

implementing what is being learned. Using the concepts of conviction and doubt, a tentative model of organizational learning is presented which posits a cycle that alternates between individual doubt and collective consensus and conviction. A case study is presented in order to illustrate how doubt and conviction might be employed to assist interventions in organizational learning.(Abstract in special issue)

Srivastava, S., et al (1995): "Management and organization learning for positive global change," Management Learning, Vol. 26, No. 1: 37-54.

Stacey, R. (1993): "Learning Organizations and Emergent Strategy", in Stacey, R. (ed.) Strategic Thinking and the Management of Change: International Perspectives in Organisational Dynamics, Kogan Page.

Stacey, R. (1994): "The Science of Complexity: An Alternative Perspective for Strategy Process", Second Conference of the International Federation for Scholarly Associations in Management, Dallas, TX: 17 - 19 August.

Starbuck, W. H. (1992): "Learning by Knowledge Intensive Firms" Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 29, No. 6 (Nov.): 713-40.

Starbuck, W. and Hedberg, B. (1977): "Saving an organization from a stagnating environment" in Thorelli, H. (ed.), Strategy + Structure = Performance, Bloomington, Indiana, Indiana University press.

Stayer, R. (1990): "How I learned to let my workers lead", Harvard Business Review, Vol. 68, No. 6: 66-83.

Steensma, H. K. (1996): "Acquiring technological competencies through inter- organization collaboration: An organizational learning perspective", Journal of Engineering and Technology Management. Vol. 12, No. 4,: 267-286 [

Firms are becoming increasingly sophisticated in their technology and are procuring know-how though a variety of collaborative methods including licensing agreements, joint ventures, minority investments, and equity acquisitions. The relationship between an organization's learning capability and interorganizational collaboration in acquiring technological competencies is examined. Organizational learning is posited to be a mediating mechanism through which technological competencies are developed via varying levels of organizational interaction. A general model is developed which suggests an efficient fit relationship between an organization's ability to learn, characteristics of the technology, and mode of inter-organizational collaboration. The concept of a learning gap is introduced, and managerial implications are suggested. Finally, propositions are developed to facilitate future empirical research. (Provided through BPO CD-ROM)

Sterman, J. D. (1994): Learning in and about complex systems, Cambridge, Mass, MIT Press.

Strata, R. (1989): "Organisational learning : the key to management innovation",

Sloan Management Review, , Vol .30 , No. 3: 63-74.

Strauss, R. E, Schoder, D. and Hummel, T. (1996):" Organizational Learning as a Cycle Between Microscopic and Macroscopic Levels - A Nonlinear Dynamic Modelling Concept", paper Presented Academy of Management Conference, Cininnati, Ohio, 9-14 August ( Monday: Conference Proceedings: 67).

Stumpf, S. A. and Dutton, J. E. 91990): "The Dynamics of Learning Through Management Simulations: let's Dance", Journal of Management Development, Vol. 9, no. 2; 7-15.

Stumpf, s. a, Watson, M. A. and Rustogi, H. (1994): 'Leadership in a 'Global Village': Creating practice Fields to Develop Learning organizations", Journal of Management Development, Vol. 13, No. 8: 16-25.

Sullivan, P. H. and ,Edvinsson, L (1996): "Developing a model for managing intellectual capital", European Management Journal Vol. 14. No. 4: 356-364

Sullivan, J. and Nonaka, I. (1986): "The application of organizational learning theory to Japanese and American management", Journal of International Business Management, Vol. 17. Fall: 127-4.

Sutcliffe, K. M. and Bunderson, S. J. (1996): "Competence Learned: Developmental Processes in Organizational Teams", paper Presented Academy of Management Conference , Cincinnati, Ohio, 9-14 August (Conference Proceedings: Tuesday: 82)

Sweiringa, J. and Wierdsma, A. F. (1992): Becoming a Learning Organisation: Beyond the Learning Curve, Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley.

Taylor, T. 91996): "Learning in the Workplace: A Study Of Three Enterprises", paper presented at the Australian Systems Conference: Learning through Systems Thinking, Monash University, Caulfield, Vic. AU, 29 September- 2 October.

Tenkasi, R. V. and Richard J. Boland, Jr, R. J. (1996): "Exploring Knowledge Diversity as a basis for Integration in Knowledge Intensive Firms: A New Role for Information Systems," Special issue of Journal of Organizational Change Management -Organizational Learning: Past, Present, and Future, Journal of Organizational Change Management , Volume 9 Number 1.

The emerging global economy is increasingly characterized by knowledge intensive firms. These firms require that diverse, specialized knowledge workers develop unique knowledge competencies, and also collaborate in ways to create new knowledge that enhances the performance of the organization. Information technologies are increasingly playing an integrative role in knowledge intensive firms as a way of achieving mutual learning. However, the Information Systems field has been predominantly driven by the notion of integration as a rational design process and an end state to be achieved through a static incorporation of knowledge domains. It has failed to consider the interpretive dynamics associated with the integration of differentiated knowledge and expertise. This paper argues a new role for information technology, one that supports the exploration of differentiated theories of meaning and knowledge and facilitates the conduct of dialogue among highly differentiated experts as a basis for integration. (Abstract in Special issue)

Thatchenkery, T. J. (1996): "Organizational learning, language games, and knowledge creation", Special issue of Journal of Organizational Change Management - Organizational Learning: Past, Present, and Future, Journal of Organizational Change Management , Volume 9 Number 1.

Tobin, D. R. (1994): Re-Educating the Corporation: Foundations for the Learning Organization , New York, Wiley.

The only real purpose for putting people together on a team is to enable them to learn from each other-to learn how to get better results for the company than if they were working separately," Tobin writes. He then provides ways to determine if an organization has effective learning teams in place. He also stresses that people need to be trained to work effectively on teams. (Noted by Beam, H. H. 1996)

Tobin, D. R. (1996): Transformational Learning, Wiley?

Transformational Learning provides a welcome emphasis on implementation of strategy. In particular, it makes a strong case for a comprehensive approach to learning that actively complements strategic planning. The author stresses that people, not intentions or plans, make change. For them to do so, they need to know the direction of that change and the training needed to accomplish it. Overall, this is a well-written book, as suitable for small and medium sized businesses as for large corporations. (Noted by Beam, H. H. 1996)

Torbert, W. (1973): Learning from Experience , New York, Columbia University Press.

Trudel. J. (1996): "Learning faster than your competitors", Upside Sep, Vol. 8, No. 9: 22

Tyre, M. J. (1996): "Learning by doing in New Process Innovation", paper presented

Academy of Management Conference, Cininnati, Ohio, 9-14 August (CCC 214 Monday: Conference Proceedings: 39)

Ulrich, D., Jick, T. and von Glinow, M. A. (1993): :"High -Impact learning: Building and diffusing learning capability", Organizational Dynamics, Autumn: 52-65 .

Useem, M. and Kochan, T. A.. (): Creating learning organizations" in : 391- 406.

Utbult, M. (1988): Towards a learning organisation, Stockholm, The Swedish Work Environment Fund.

van Deusen, C. and Mueller, C. B.: (1996A): " An Organizational Learning Model To Determine Selection of Exploration of New Routines or Exploitation of Existing Routines", International Federation of Scholarly Associations in Management 3rd World Conference: Management of Intangibles, Paris., 8-11 July : 55-6.

This paper develops an integrative model which considers variables commonly included as well as variables not addressed by existing models in the literature. An overarching purpose of the model is to assist organizational understanding of when exploitation versus exploration is indicated as a more appropriate choice for efficient and effective OL.

Ö several factors appear to affect whether exploitation of exploration is a more appropriate mode of OL. These factors include the success of prior experiences, the degree of organizational heterogeneity, the strength of organizational culture, the rate of member turnover, the type and frequency of communication among members, and structural issues. Ö Two notable factors which have not been included in this paper but which can hardly be ignored are the effects of the external environment and the organizational learning curve Ö (summarised by John Odgers)

van Deusen, C. and Mueller, C. B.: (1996B): A Model of Organizational Learning: Investigating the Constructs of Exploration and Exploitation", paper presented

Academy of Management Conference, Cininnati, Ohio, 9-14 August (Conference Proceedings: 123)

Van de Ven, A. and Polley, D. (1992): "Learning While Innovating", Organization

Science, Vol. 3, No. 1: 92-116.

Ventriss, C. and Luke, J. (1988): "Organizational Learning and Public Policy: Towards a Substantive Perspective", American Review of Public Administration, Dec.: 337-57.

Venugopal, V., and Baets, W. (1995): "Intelligent support systems for organizational learning", The Learning Organization, Vol. 2, No. 3: 22-34.

Verlunder, E. G. (1990): "The Executive Learner", The Journal of Management Development, Vol. 9, No. 4: 4-6.

Voyer, (1986): The Process of Implementation: An Eclectic Field Study of a Strategic Implementation Effort, Boston, Mass., PhD thesis, Uni. of Massachusetts.

Walsh, J. and Ungson, G. R. (1991): "Organizational memory", Academy of Management Journal, Vol.. 16: 57-91.

Ward, A. and Le, V. (1996):" Lessons learned on the knowledge highways and byways", Strategy and Leadership Vol. 24, No. 2: 16-20.

At Hughes Space & Communications Group, the goal is to introduce a corporate structure that can reduce costs and cycle times without wiping out the ability to innovate. The company has learned that bringing about change in a large organization is easier by following a true revolutionary model. The company has identified several insights that might be of value to others who are working on knowledge management, including: 1. Leveraging potential means learning how to learn. 2. Focus on the work and the worker. 3. Advertising works. At Ford Motor Co., the initial impetus for organizational learning came from the international executive group. The company's first step was to develop methodologies for thinking about a world of complex interdependencies. The company established a set of guiding ideas that describe the elementary shift it must make in how it thinks and acts: 1. from fragmentation to systems, 2. from competition to collaboration, 3. from reactiveness to creating, and 4. from bureaucratic politics to authentic conversations. [Abstract from BPO 21/ 9/ 96]
 

Wardman, K. T. (ed.): "Building Communities of Commitment" The Systems Thinker: Building Shared Understanding, Vol. 5, No. 10: 1-6.

Watkins, K. E. and Golembiewski, R. T. (1995): "Rethinking organization development for the learning organization", The International Journal of Organization Analysis, Vol. 3, No. 2: 86-101.

Watkins, K. E. and Marsick, V. J. (1993): Sculpting the Learning Organization: Lessons in the Art and Science of Systemic Change, San Francisco, Jossey- Bass.

Weick, K. , Westley, F. (1996): "Representing the Organization: Organizational Learning, Affirming an Oxymoron," paper Presented Academy of Management Conference , Cincinnati, Ohio, 9-14 August (Conference Proceedings: Wednesday: 121)

Wenger, E. (1996): 'Communities of practice: The social fabric of a learning organization", Healthcare Forum Journal, Vol. 39, No. 4: . 20-26

Westney, Eleanor (1988): "Domestic and foreign learning curves in managing international cooperative strategies" in F. J. Contractor and P. Lorange (eds.) Cooperative strategies in international business. ,. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books: 339-346

Wheelwright, S. C. and Clark, K. B. (1992): Revolutionizing Product Development: Quantum Leaps in Speed, Efficiency, and Quality, New York, The Free Press: 284-310.

Whitaker, R (1996): "Managing context in enterprise knowledge processes", European Management Journal Vol. 14. No. 4399-406

Wick. C. W. and Leon, L. S.. (1995): "From ideas to action: Creating a learning organization", Human Resource Management, Vol. 34. No. 2: 299-311.

Williams, C. (1995): "Leaning towards learning", Plantline, 24. 26

Wishart, N. A, Elam, J. J. and Robey, D. (1996): "Redrawing the portrait of a learning organization: Inside Knight-Ridder, Inc," Academy of Management Review, Vol. 10, N0. 1: 7-20.

Contemporary descriptions of the "learning organization" have appeared throughout the management literature. These descriptions portray learning organizations as capable of adapting to changes in the external business environment by practising continuous renewal of their structures and practices. Many accounts of learning organizations suggest that the path to becoming a learning organization is often wildly experimental, intensely focused around team processes, structured into non hierarchical clusters, and operating in virtual time / space through electronic networks. For many managers, such a radical image might discourage attempts to enhance performance by becoming a learning organization. Ongoing experimentation, innovative human resource programs, radical revisions in structure, and generous doses of information technology may simply be too risky, especially where payoffs are uncertain. By offering a less radical portrait of one learning organization, Knight Ridder , Inc, we will demonstrate that learning can be attained by using more conventional means.
 

Woiceshyn, J. and Hartel, D. (1996): "Strategies and performance of Canadian biotechnology firms: An empirical investigation" , Technovation, Vol. 16, No. 5: 231-243

A survey of Canadian biotechnology firms investigated the impact of their context on their strategies and performance. Two kind of exploratory findings are reported: 1. a descriptive profile of the companies and their strategies for coping with business and political contexts, and 2. statistical comparisons between 3 performance groups.Ö When firms in 3 performance groups were compared, the main differentiators between higher and lower performers were development of complementary skills outside R&D, and effective transfer of organizational learning. (emphasis added)

Young, D. (1995): "Constant Learning", Executive Excellence, Vol. 12, No. 4.

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